Cannabis in Europe
Taken from the 1998/99 Geopolitical Drugs Dispatch report
EUROPE
The Schengen area has become the largest drug consumer market on the planet in recent years. The seizures carried out in Spain in 1999 suggest that the country is the main entry point for hashish and cocaine in the Schengen zone. ...European traffickers continue to operate behind the scenes but on a large scale. This is especially true of the Dutch and British, the Galicians in Spain, the survivors of the Mediterranean Milieu in France and, above all, the Italian mafias. The latter have redeployed throughout Italy and particularly in the industrial north, giving up some of their activities to foreign organizations. Generally, non-Western European mafias, especially Colombian, Turkish and Albanian (from Kosovo and Albania) groups, have become stronger, either by striking partnerships with local criminals or by becoming autonomous from them.
In Eastern Europe, Russia and former communist countries such as Lithuania, Poland, and the Czech Republic confirm their role as transit territories, not only for "Turkish-Afghan" heroin, but also for most of the drugs available in the world: Latin-American cocaine, hashish from the Golden Crescent and Central Asia, marijuana from Africa, etc.
ITALY...Drug Trafficking: Italian and Foreign Mobs
The Italian drug trafficking scene is greatly affected by the evolution of the criminal organizations active in the country. To the traditional domestic mafias have been added powerful foreign mobs, which have the ability to continue acting in Italy by collaborating with one another or with their Italian counterparts, most of the time on an absolute equal footing (see box). Investigations and seizure statistics for 1998 give a clear picture of the sources of each substance traded by the networks operating in Italy. Some 30% of hashish and marijuana seizures were carried out by customs, which in Italy are in charge of maritime checks in virtue of their competence on the country's borders. By contrast, on the continent, Lombardia ranks fourth as far as amounts seized are concerned and first for the number of seizures. Hashish (15.5 metric tons seized) comes mainly from Morocco, either via Spain in shipments of several hundred kilograms (59%), or directly from the source by tons at a time (39%). Entry points are located along the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea (especially Tuscany) and on the main roads through Vintimiglia (on the border with France), which supply the northern Italian market, and through Campania for the southern market. Marijuana (39 tons seized) arrives on the Adriatic, especially from Albania (63%) either by illegal immigrants in small batches of a few dozen kilos, or in large shipments transported by professional smugglers.
In Apulia, where 18 tons of marijuana were intercepted (47% of the national total), large shipments transit to the north, concealed in trucks transporting fruits and vegetables, while smaller batches are hidden in private automobiles, and travel in groups preceded by reconnaissance cars ready to divert the attention of the police in case of need. A large seizure of 6.439 tons of Ghana-grown marijuana made in Trieste, northeast Italy, is worth mentioning as an important event of 1999. It must also be noted that large cannabis crops are grown in Calabria, 200,000 plants of which were destroyed in 1998 and 471,000 in 1999.
SPAIN
The definition of Spain given by The Geopolitical Drug Despatch in 1992 applies perfectly eight years later: "a narcotics clearinghouse". The country's role in the internantional transit trafficking of hashish, cocaine and even heroin is due to factors such as its geographical location between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, the size of its tourist industry, etc. ...The annual totals [1999]of 1 ton of heroin, 17 tons of cocaine and 400 tons of hashish are all the largest ever readied in the country. Although Colombian, Moroccan, Turkish, etc., networks are doing brisk business in Spain, the official statistics show that only a tiny proportion of those arrested on drug charges are foreigners. And, by and. large, it is Spaniards, individually or collectively, who have facilitated the penetration of international criminal organizations in Spain. ...Viano do Castelo, a town of northern Portugal, has turned into a safe haven for the Galician narcos who are in trouble in their own country. Some of the traffickers' financial setups and some of their hashish and cocaine smuggling infrastructure also have been relocated to this corner of Portugal. However, the smuggling goes on in the same old way: powerful speedboats and fishing vessels ferry drugs back from large slips waiting at sea, or sail to Morocco to pick up hashish. Brazil continues to be a preferred meeting location for the Galician bosses and their Colombian counterparts....In September 1999, the owners of a small plane used to spray crops were arrested on charges of smuggling Moroccan hashish into Spain, France, Italy and Germany via a small airport in Tarragona, Catalonia....The Fragmented Hashish, Heroin and Synthetic Drugs Networks
The trade in hashish that is behind the money laundered in Melilla is growing unhindered and entry points are mushrooming on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Spain. Many of the British, Dutch, French, Italian, etc., drug gangs that come to pick up hashish shipments in Spain are highly organized. By contrast, the groups that supply them by importing hashish from Morocco into Spain are made up of nationals of several countries who operate within loose structures in terms of centralization and hierarchy. During the last few years, more and more hashish has been smuggled by private yachts and fishing boats. Additionally, purely parasitic gangs have emerged, specializing in stealing hashish shipments from weaker groups.
Sophisticated or not, the hashish smugglers have strong corruption capabilities. A significant number of law enforcement officers posted in small and middling coastal towns around the Cadiz area are systemically bribed, to the point that it these officers actually regulate the trafficking across the Strait of Gibraltar by deciding who can and cannot take part in it. In this region, the organizations involved in drug-trafficking and immigrant-smuggling tend to merge, which increases their profit margins and theretore their ability to bribe officials. These activities contribute to offset the underdevelopment of the Cadiz area, where unemployment stands at nearly 40% of the active population - the highest rate in the European Union....Higher rates of drug use could be a reaction to the stress implied by the Basque armed stntggle. According to a 1999 study, published by the Santa Maria Foundation, which specializes in youth problems, 62.4% of the young peeple living in the Basque country use hashish as opposed to 33.5% nationwide. The same difference exists for other drugs, especially synthetic drugs. In the past, radical Basque nationalists maintained that excessive drug use in the Basque country was the outcome of a Spanish-government strategy aiming at pacifying rebellious Basque youths. However, it is likely that ETA itself contributed to the process by importing large amounts of drugs, especially heroin, in the Basque country.
THE CANNABIS MARKET IN PARIS
The Paris market for cannabis products, especially hashish, experienced an important change during 1998 and 1999. Indeed, until 1998, consumers could be divided into two broad categories. First, there were the "privileged few" (whose only privilege was to know the "right" person), who, thanks to the trips their acquaintances made to the Netherlands, Morocco or Southeast Asia, had access to better quality products. The trips could be short package tours at the end of which the travellers decided to take a "souvenir" of 50 to 100 grams back home in order to introduce their friends to new exotic flavors and/or perhaps to cover some of the expenses. But they could also be "business trips" organized by a small network of two to five people, who arranged to import 1 to 5 kilograms of an illicit substance on a more or less regular basis. In Paris, a kilo of charas (Indian hashish harvested and pressed by hand) can be sold at between 80 and 100 French francs a gram and up to FF6,500 for a 100-gram slab (FF6 = US $1). The same is true for some types of hashish from Morocco.
By contrast the second category of consumers - the majority - was supplied with "standard" Moroccan hashish diluted with various ingredients, and marijuana from sub-Saharan Africa, which contains seeds and stems bringing the weight up. Until 1998, the average Parisian smoker would only come across high-grade produce through sheer "luck", at the occasional arrival of a quantity large enough to be distributed throughout the city, or a seasonal "breakthrough", such as has been happening for a few years with so-called "Afghan" hashish, which becomes available in large amounts in the spring. In fact, the latter is most often "border", that is, commercial-grade hashish made up of both Afghan and Pakistani resins and which is manufactured in Pakistan near the border with Afghanistan. In Paris, it costs about FF400 for 12 grams, FF2,500 for 100 g and FF25,000 a kilo.
"Chernobyl" and "Yaya"
"Standard" Moroccan hashish is the most adulterated cannabis derivative available in France. Its quality has been going down steadily since the early 1990s and it has eventually become a kind of "hashish substitute", which has been dubbed "Parisian hashish" by some smokers because it is "modified" in the stash houses of the suburbs. When sold to the consumer, it does not contain much cannabis resin - 50% at the most, and of disputable quality - being largely made up of plant debris, henna, paraffin wax, shoe polish, medications, glue, used motor oil, etc. The adulterations went so far that the resulting substance was nicknamed "Chernobyl". There could be more to this name than just derision. Indeed, in 1995, a 39 year-old man, who had smoked "Chernobyl" for several years, was found to have kidney cancer: according to the doctors, "Chernobyl" facilitated the tumor's development. In France, hundreds of thousands of people have smoked this substance for years. Until 1996-1997, this "hashish" could fetch FF12,000 to FFI5,000 a kilo while the 250-gram savonnette, or "soap bar", cost FF3,500 to FF6,000. Retail, 12 grams sold for FF300 and 25 grams for FF600. The hegemony of "Chernobyl" over the market was dented in early 1998 with the arrival, on a medium scale at first, of high quality, "unmodified", Moroccan hashish, conditioned into slabs of 100 to 125 grams and wrongly called "pollen" (also - wrongly - known as "yaya", which is in fact a hashish of much better quality), which used to be restricted to a well-off clientele due to its high price of FF3,500 to FF4,000 for 100 grams and FF30,000 to FF33,000 a kilo.
While it is likely that stocks of pollen initially came from the Netherlands, where it is available under several names and grades - from Zero (equivalent to the grade available in France) at 5-6 guilders a gram, to King Hassan Pollen at 30 guilders a gram - most supplies now come straight from Morocco, where production does nor stop expanding to facilitate the supply of a market that has expanded considerably in a few months. In December 1998, pollen prices were as follows: FF500 for 12 grams; FF800 for 25 grains; FF2,300 to FF2,500 for a 125-gram slab; and FF20,000 to FF25,000 a kilo.
The year 1999 confirmed the fall of prices of both pollen and "Chernobyl", and was marked by increasing seizures of loose resin (not pressed into slabs), which the police has labelled "pollen" due to its powdery form. While some wholesalers use no adulterant, others do not hesitate to dilute the resin in order to increase profits. As a result, quality and therefore prices have dropped. Thus, it is possible to buy 25 grams of pollen for FF500, but here the resin is not very pure. Pure resin, of the "press-it-yourself" type, remains available at FF500 to FF600 for 12 grams. By late 1999, prices ranged from FF1,800 to FF3,500 for 100 grams, depending on quality, while the prices for pure resin practically had not changed from 1998.
Other resins, of less commonplace origins, also appeared in 1999, notably a Turkish hashish with a high concentration in active ingredient, which is reputed among consumers for its potency and its euphoriant effects that are stronger than those of Moroccan hashish. Strangely, the Turkish product is usually sold as Moroccan pollen and at the comparatively low price of FF450-450 for 12 grams and FF700 to FF800 for 25 grams. In addition, Lebanese hashish made some sporadic breakthroughs, it too passed off most of the times as Moroccan pollen at the price of FF500 for 12 grams and FF900 for 25 grams. Some consumers also mentioned a hashish "arriving from Israel", but it could be Turkish, Lebanese, Syrian, etc. These misunderstandings about the origin explainable by the vast range of resins (with different colors, maturity, fineness, purity and pressing), competing on the market. Indeed, because they are accustomed to poor quality Moroccan hashish, most consumers tend to view any good pollen as "yaya".
Fluctuating Prices
Due to these recent developments, "Chernobyl" "hashish" sold in 250-gram "soap-bar" slabs has been hard hit by the competition and its price has gone down. In 1998, a kilo was only FF8,000 to FF10,000 and 250 grams between FF2,500 and FF3,500. By late 1999, prices hit a low FF7,000 a kilo; or even FF6,000 a kilo for a purchase of two kilos. However, retail prices dropped less in 1998: FF250 for 12 grams, and FF500 for 25 grams, but eventually reached FF250-300 for 25 grams in 1999. This drop in prices is felt beyond the capital. In Compiegne, a city 80 kilometers north of Paris, consumers paid FF800 for 25 gram; and FF400 for 12 grams until l996-l997, but in 1998 they only paid FF500 for 25 grams and FF250 for 12 grams. And this even occurred while the influence of pollen was not yet felt in Compiegne. The town was caught up by the pollen tidal wave in the third quarter of 1999. At FF50-60 a gram ("12-gram slabs" actually weigh 8 or 10 grams), pollen dragged "Chernobyl" down to FF300 for 25 grams.
However, "Chernobyl" still has its adepts, for financial reasons or even by taste. But pollen's domination is such, in Greater Paris, that it has become difficult to buy "Chernobyl" in the street because all the street dealers now smoke, and therefore sell, pollen. "Chernobyl" smokers have to buy their supplies from apartment dealers or through someone with access to sellers of "soap bars" in the suburbs. Usually, three to five people get together to buy a 250-gram "soap bar".
Thus, the current wave of pollen does nor mean that the market for "Chernobyl" has disappeared. While pollen has won market shares practically everywhere in France, its availability can be erratic in some of the provinces and it can be expensive. The regions best endowed as far as pollen is concerned are those closer to the source country, in the south of France.
Moreover, the influence of the Paris pollen marker is spreading ever further, now covering towns as far as 100 kilometers away, many of which are supplied from the capital's suburbs. Some Parisian dealers do not hesitate to travel 100 or 200 kilometers to isolated regions to sell one or two kilos of "good" "Chernobyl" or 100 to 500 grams of pollen. In Brittany, for instance, the soap bar can fetch FF3,500-4,000 in Rennes, while a kilo can sell for FF18,000 in remote Finistere.
Diversification of Marijuana Supplies
The main difference between the markets for imported hashish and marijuana is that street dealing in the latter is unusual. Except for some areas in the northern and eastern outskirts of Paris, the deals are usually conducted in an apartment or a squatted building. Marijuana from West and Central Africa, the most widely available type, is fairly inexpensive. Users complain about the large amount of seeds and stems it contains, as well as its low level of THC, the active ingredient in cannabis. Typical prices are FF200 for 12 grams, FF400 for 25 g, FF1,000 to FF1,200 for 100 g, and FF7,000 to FF8,000 a kilo. On the other hand, marijuana from Southern Africa is harder to find but much sought-after for its high THC content. High prices reflect the demand: FF600 to FF700 for 25 grams, FF9,000 to FF10,000 for 500 grams; and FF17,000 to FF18,000 a kilo.
Colombian marijuana is available, all the time, at FF13,000 to FF17,000 a kilo, depending on quality. Meanwhile, marijuana from South-east Asia (Thailand) and the Caribbean (Saint Vincent, Saint Lucia and Jamaica) has made a significant breakthrough into the Paris market, At the end of the first quarter of 1998, it was selling for FF22,000 to F25,000 a kilo; by December the price had fallen to between FF17,000 and F21,000, depending on origin and quality. These types of marijuana contain only the flowering tips of the plant and are practically sinsemilla (seed-free), so they have a higher proportion of THC.
But the most striking characteristic of the Paris market in recent years has been the boom in sales of marijuana grown indoors and marketed under the name of "skunk". Although originally the name of a variety, like Northern Light Or Haze, the term "skunk" is now used to describe any type of homegrown pot. At first, almost all of it came from the Netherlands (Nederwiet, or "Dutchweed"), usually via "short networks" bringing in from 100 grams to one or two kilos, at the most, at a time. This marijuana also contains a large amount of THC and commands a high price. It can fetch up to FF100 a gram in the street. Generally speaking, prices are around FF500 to FF600 for 12 grams and FF3,000 to FF4,000 for 100 grams. A kilo, sold for FF33,000 to FF36,000 at the start of 1998, is now available for FF28,000 to FF32,000. One of the dealers questioned by OGD was even offering it at FF25,000. However, these prices apply to "unbranded" Nederwiets of standard quality. Other types fetch much higher prices; for instance, White Widow, the renowned variety that won an award at the Amsterdam Cannabis Cup, costs FF38,000 to FF40,000 a kilo. The reason for the slump in prices is the spread of indoor cultivation under HPS (high-pressure sodium) lamps, using seeds from the Netherlands of course, but also from Britain, Switzerland, Germany, the United States and Canada. The latter two countries have an experience of over 30 years in this business. A wide range of plants is available, from the 30-inch long "column" to the 10-feet high "pine tree", with either stimulating or narcotic effects, to the variety specially-designed for manufacturing hashish.
There are two main types of growers: first, ordinary users, who wish to spend less, ensure better quality and perhaps earn some extra cash from friends; second, those who are willing to devote the necessary time and resources to make money. With the right amount of space and a standard equipment, they can produce an average of 1 kg a week (3 to 4 harvests a year), though at the cost of several thousands kilowatts/hour of electricity for lights. With other, more sophisticated pieces of equipment, growers can harvest up to 500 grams per square meter of plants every three or four months. Such "farms" are currently operating in some Paris suburbs, and local Cannabis Cups are organized, where growers gather to compare the varieties they have created.
The dealers questioned said that they sold varying amounts of marijuana: perhaps 2 kg to 3 kg in a weekend, compared to 5 kg a week for those dealing in hashish. In spite of the high prices and the amounts involved, selling marijuana is not a passport to riches in Paris. In the poor parts of the city and suburbs, trafficking in cannabis derivatives is, above all, a means of survival for those unable to find regular work. That is true of both growers and dealers, some of whom only started to sell drugs when they lost their jobs.
RUSSIA...The National Customs Committee says that the structure of the market underwent major changes in 1999. Statistics show that poppy straw (with which a kind of homemade heroin can be produced), hashish and marijuana are tending to be replaced by refined heroin (brown sugar and sometimes China white) and synthetic drugs. ...Nonetheless, cannabis derivatives are still the mast widely used drugs. Illicit production goes on in all the countries of the former Soviet Union, especially those in central Asia. Cannabis is also grown practically everywhere in Russia. In August 1999, for instance, police arrested more than 300 people in the Primoriye region of eastern Russia who were cultivating about 120 fields of cannabis, covering 100 or so hectares. The farmers said cannabis was their sole source of income in a region badly hit by unemployment. Around the same time, the police announced that 200 hectares of cannabis plants had been destroyed in the Khabarovsk region, along with a dozen or so plots hidden in kitchen gardens.
LITHUANIA...Marijuana, which the young people of Vilnius often carry in a korobka (matchbox), is also very popular and easily available at $0.15 to $1.50 a grain, depending on quality. The marijuana market is supplied by local crops and the fallout from international transit trafficking (30 kg of marijuana and 4 kg of hashish were seized in 1998)....A Staging Post on International Routes
By contrast, transit trafficking is developing in Lithuania. To the south-west, the Russian enclave of Kaliningrad is a regional drug-trafficking hub, and this has an impact on Lithuania. Poppy "straw", opium, heroin and cannabis products are shipped to Kaliningrad from Afghanistan and Central Asia via Russia. Drugs from the Ukraine transit Belarus, Lithuania (the two countries have 720 km of common border, some of which is not precisely defined) and the rest of Baltic countries.